I have to admit it that although writing journals about Syntax always makes me exhausted, I love this subject. Today I've just finished one more chapter of the coursebook: Chapter VI.
Syntactic units are usually composed of units directly below them and they function in units directly above them. Thus a phrase is composed of words and functions in a clause. Just as the description of phrases was in term of words and their function in various types of phrase, the description of clauses is in term of phrases and their function in various types of clause.
That's the introduction of the structure of clauses, we now discuss the functions of phrases in a clause.
There are five functions that phrases may fulfil in English clause structure. They are Subject, Verb, Object, Complement and Adjunct.
First of all, about Subject. The subject function is usually filled by a Noun phrase and the noun or pronoun that is head here 'agrees' with the verb in number. In practice, except for 'be', this applies only to the third person singular of the simple present tense. For 'be', there are three forms in the present tense and two in the past tense. In statement clauses in English, the subject usually precedes the verb. Basically English is a subject-verb-object language.
Secondly, Verb. The verb function is always filled by a verb phrase. It is nearly a defining characteristic of a clause that it contains a verb. Clauses without verb do occasionally occur but they may usually be regarded as derivation in some way form further clauses with verb
For example : Dinner over, they went to bed <= When dinner was over, they went to bed.
Most clause contain at least a subject and a verb. Imperative clauses can be considered as an exception but this type of clause is sometimes thought to have a 'you' subject. Non-finite clause is another exception here. e.g. Seeing his girlfriend kiss another man, he ...
Thirdly, Object. The object function may be filled either by a noun phrase or by a prepositional phrase. In the case of prepositional phrases, we have two ways of analyzing this:
+ We may see the clause is composed of a subject (Noun Phrase), verb (verb phrase) and object (Prepositional phrase).
+ Alternatively, the preposition may be regarded as belonging to the verb. Thus, the verb phrase now contains a prepositional verb and the object is now a noun phrase.
However, in case the preposition does not occur next to the verb, it is useful to assign the preposition to the object rather than the verb.
Some clauses often have two objects, here we got the terms 'direct object' and 'indirect object'. The indirect object normally refers to a person, more particularly the person who is recipient or beneficiary.
Ex: Tom gave Jerry a toy => Tom gave a toy to Jerry
Sometimes, it is difficult to draw this distinction. Here the terms 'object 1' and 'object 2' should be used.
Ex: Tom sprayed blue paint on the gate => Tom sprayed the gate with blue paint
Fourthly, Complement. This function may be filled either by a noun phrase or by an adjective phrase. So what is the difference between a compliment and an object? A complement has the same reference as the subject or as the object.
Ex: He has become a distinguished leader.
I found the book quite interesting.
=> A compliment may be either a subject compliment or an object compliment.
Furthermore, a complement may refer either to a state or to a result.
Ex: She seems unhealthy. He has become ill.
There is a limited subclass of verbs that may be associated with complements.
Fifthly, Adjunct. The adjunct function is filled by an adverb phrase, a prepositional phrase, or a noun phrase. It is an optional element in clause structure and gives circumstantial information about the action or event that the clause refers to.
Finally, we'll talk a little bit about the obligation and option of elements. When a subject, verb, object or complement occur in a clause, their presence is necessary to render the clause grammatical or sensible. Thus, subject, verb and complement are mostly obligatory. Objects may sometimes omitted and adjuncts are usually optional.
OK, above is about the functions of a phrase may take in a clause. Now we'll take a look at types of clause.
The recognition of basic clause types may be based on the basis of the functions of phrases occurring in clause structure. In English, there are seven such basic clause types:
1. Subject verb (SV)
2. Subject verb adjunct (SVA)
3. Subject verb complement (SVC)
4. Subject verb object (SVO)
5. Subject verb object adjunct (SVOA)
6. Subject verb object object (SVOO)
7. Subject verb object complement (SVOC)
Type 1 is an intransitive clause type. The action referred by the verb here is carried out by the subject and does not affect anybody or anything else. This group also includes 'impersonal verbs', i.e. the subjects refers to a total environment rather than to some parts of it. Ex: It's raining
Type 2 may be regarded as intransitive, though it is also considered to be similar to Type 3. Here the adjunct is obligatory for the verb, mainly adjuncts of place, either of position or of direction. Sometimes, we find a few verb take adjuncts of time or of manner. e.g. An old man lived in the tent / He weighs seventy kilos.
Type 3 is the intensive clause type. Here the complement and subject are not distinct entities but refer to the same 'thing'. Intensive relation also occurs when two noun phrases are in apposition (the use of a noun phrase immediately after another noun phrase which refers to the same person or thing) e.g Your boots smells badly .
Type 4 is a transitive clause type, 'mono-transitive' is its exact name in order to distinguish it from its 'relative', type 6. This clause type has only one object. It's probably the commonest clause type, both in terms of the number of verbs entering it and in terms of the frequency of occurrence in spoken and written language. e.g. We've found him.
Type 5 is a transitive clause type but here an adjunct is obligatory for the object. Like type 2, the majority of adjuncts are of place, though other kinds are possible. e.g. You must put the shoes on the shelf.
Type 6 is the 'di-transitive' clause type. i.e. having two objects. Sometimes we can distinguish between indirect object and direct object (of course in terms of these kinds of object). The indirect object may come before the direct object and usually refers to an animate 'thing'. We have three kinds of structure here:
+ Subject-verb-indirect object-direct object : I gave him a chance
+ Subject-verb-direct object-to-indirect object: Tom gave the ring to Ann
+ Subject-verb-direct object-for-indirect object: They saved the money for me.
Type 7 is the complex-transitive clause type where only one element will follow the verb, but it is a complex of an object and a complement. Here exists an intensive relation between the object and the complement. e.g We found Jane talented.
That's all for chapter VI, one more chapter and we'll finish English Syntax for Somophores hehe. See you next time.
Some clauses often have two objects, here we got the terms 'direct object' and 'indirect object'. The indirect object normally refers to a person, more particularly the person who is recipient or beneficiary.
Ex: Tom gave Jerry a toy => Tom gave a toy to Jerry
Sometimes, it is difficult to draw this distinction. Here the terms 'object 1' and 'object 2' should be used.
Ex: Tom sprayed blue paint on the gate => Tom sprayed the gate with blue paint
Fourthly, Complement. This function may be filled either by a noun phrase or by an adjective phrase. So what is the difference between a compliment and an object? A complement has the same reference as the subject or as the object.
Ex: He has become a distinguished leader.
I found the book quite interesting.
=> A compliment may be either a subject compliment or an object compliment.
Furthermore, a complement may refer either to a state or to a result.
Ex: She seems unhealthy. He has become ill.
There is a limited subclass of verbs that may be associated with complements.
Fifthly, Adjunct. The adjunct function is filled by an adverb phrase, a prepositional phrase, or a noun phrase. It is an optional element in clause structure and gives circumstantial information about the action or event that the clause refers to.
Finally, we'll talk a little bit about the obligation and option of elements. When a subject, verb, object or complement occur in a clause, their presence is necessary to render the clause grammatical or sensible. Thus, subject, verb and complement are mostly obligatory. Objects may sometimes omitted and adjuncts are usually optional.
OK, above is about the functions of a phrase may take in a clause. Now we'll take a look at types of clause.
The recognition of basic clause types may be based on the basis of the functions of phrases occurring in clause structure. In English, there are seven such basic clause types:
1. Subject verb (SV)
2. Subject verb adjunct (SVA)
3. Subject verb complement (SVC)
4. Subject verb object (SVO)
5. Subject verb object adjunct (SVOA)
6. Subject verb object object (SVOO)
7. Subject verb object complement (SVOC)
Type 1 is an intransitive clause type. The action referred by the verb here is carried out by the subject and does not affect anybody or anything else. This group also includes 'impersonal verbs', i.e. the subjects refers to a total environment rather than to some parts of it. Ex: It's raining
Type 2 may be regarded as intransitive, though it is also considered to be similar to Type 3. Here the adjunct is obligatory for the verb, mainly adjuncts of place, either of position or of direction. Sometimes, we find a few verb take adjuncts of time or of manner. e.g. An old man lived in the tent / He weighs seventy kilos.
Type 3 is the intensive clause type. Here the complement and subject are not distinct entities but refer to the same 'thing'. Intensive relation also occurs when two noun phrases are in apposition (
Type 4 is a transitive clause type, 'mono-transitive' is its exact name in order to distinguish it from its 'relative', type 6. This clause type has only one object. It's probably the commonest clause type, both in terms of the number of verbs entering it and in terms of the frequency of occurrence in spoken and written language. e.g. We've found him.
Type 5 is a transitive clause type but here an adjunct is obligatory for the object. Like type 2, the majority of adjuncts are of place, though other kinds are possible. e.g. You must put the shoes on the shelf.
Type 6 is the 'di-transitive' clause type. i.e. having two objects. Sometimes we can distinguish between indirect object and direct object (of course in terms of these kinds of object). The indirect object may come before the direct object and usually refers to an animate 'thing'. We have three kinds of structure here:
+ Subject-verb-indirect object-direct object : I gave him a chance
+ Subject-verb-direct object-to-indirect object: Tom gave the ring to Ann
+ Subject-verb-direct object-for-indirect object: They saved the money for me.
Type 7 is the complex-transitive clause type where only one element will follow the verb, but it is a complex of an object and a complement. Here exists an intensive relation between the object and the complement. e.g We found Jane talented.
...
In conclusion, the elements that are constant in all the clause types are the subject and the verb. What follows the verb is called 'complementation' of the verb and it varies. Not every verb may enter every clause type. Some verbs are restricted to just one clause type, some may enter more. Thus, it is possible to specify verbs for the clause types they may enter, and in more detail still for the categories of phrase that may be associated with them in each clause type.That's all for chapter VI, one more chapter and we'll finish English Syntax for Somophores hehe. See you next time.
No comments:
Post a Comment